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</html>";s:4:"text";s:37504:"As Rabkin has written, “As the entire critical history of the play has made equally apparent, the play's ultimate resolution of [its] conflicts is anything but clear or simple.” But even Rabkin sees the critical challenge as a demand for allegiance on one of two sides. Speaking to Portia's musicians at Portia's house, Lorenzo tells them, literally, to draw her home. Article Writing. Not all of her songs are erotic; in fact most of them are laments, expressions of loss and grief: Here again Ophelia's singing could be construed as reinforcing a gender stereotype, since grief, or indeed any strong emotion, is another form of excess identified as “feminine” in Hamlet. In mourning the loss of both father and “true love” (4.5.23), Ophelia aligns herself with this tradition, not only through her own singing, but also through her implicit identification with Niobe and Hecuba, the legendary women evoked by Hamlet as icons of mourning. The Merchant of Venice, ed. More often than not ridiculed as inappropriate and ineffectual—not to say incongruous—stage music is also the butt of institutional criticism in the Puritan attacks on entertainment. The propriety of the music and its regular meaning thus subverted are made the core of an intensely dramatic moment and a part of Richard's general perversion of custom and ritual. It does not, however, become the structural principle of the play itself. We recognise the compromises that follow upon Prospero's manipulative aims, yet we respect the urgent desire that led him to a life of contemplation to secure the power he exercises. Such an interpretation would make this music somewhat akin to musica humana in its negative light. During its action music is continually used to mark the abrasive clash between appearance and reality, between the opposing poles of that greater struggle that encompasses the lesser one of Greek against Trojan. The deliberate confrontation of evil and chaos with the formal beauty of art—ceremony, poetry, dance, music—is an act of faith in the victory of harmony over chaos. The obvious function of much of the music is practical, although there are often overtones of Neoplatonic theory.21 For instance, the snatch and the bawdy song of Stephano in II. Lorenzo's speech about “the sweet power of music” becomes a useless lesson about harmony, for an untrue lover cannot teach it, having already taught a lesson about discord. Such a moment occurs at the end of the first scene of act III. 4) What effect does this music have upon those who listen to it? That Shylock cannot be happy is a basic fact required by the plot of Merchant. Webster's mention of bell and “Scritch-Owl, and the whistler shrill” in connection with the death of the Duchess of Malfi is worth comparing here. What do these have to do with the music of the spheres? Later in the same section Burton mentions several Christian parallels: Who hath not heard how David's harmony drove away the evil Spirits from King Saul, 1 Sam. He thinks as Everyman thinks and Everyman is therefore bound to hold him in respect: ‘It would be every man's thought, and thou art a blessed fellow to think as every man thinks’ (2 Henry IV, 2.2.52). Thanks to the music, Ferdinand is able to accept the past, symbolized by his father, as past, and at once there stands before him his future, Miranda. Is she saying she was not merry the first time she heard Lorenzo's sweet music? Shakespeare had used a somewhat similar situation in Richard II, V. v. 41-44, 61-63. … But it is not necessary to dwell on it in order to appreciate the speech, so tactful is Lorenzo's pedagogy.” According to Danson, “Lorenzo's treatment of music's role in human and in cosmic nature is at once description and demonstration: it enacts its meanings. Quoting Hamlet, he says, “‘Words, words, words.’ The Elizabethans loved them: they relished them and they played with them.” Three of Barton's actors read a passage from Love's Labour's Lost that demonstrates this love of language, and he reiterates his theme: “Verbal relish … today we're a bit apt to fight shy of it. The galliard was a joyful affair in which the lady dances away and the man leaps after her, and it was one of the most popular dances of the sixteenth century. It appears to echo the sex act to the point of orgasm; I will not review the text. Anyone at the time, if asked, “What is music?” would have given the answer stated by Lorenzo to Jessica in the last scene of The Merchant of Venice. The tune that Iago was calling—the declaration that love is ‘merely a lust of the blood and a permission of the will’ (1.3.333)—is broken not with the torture that Lodovico has ordered but by the results of what he himself has engineered. Shakespeare would match his usage of a bare phase with music and other assorted theatrical noises in order to make a deeper connexion with his audience. A sense of discomfort is fully justified when, at the end of the play, the sprites who sang ‘bow-wow’ appear in doggy habit to chase Stephano and Trinculo from Prospero's cave. The emblematic use of the loving couple is very like Campion's later use of the figures of Princess Elizabeth and Frederick Elector Palatine as the concluding symbol of his Lords' Masque, but whereas in Campion's work the masquers and audience turn to do homage to the couple sitting in state, Shakespeare's lovers are preoccupied with each other, and their ideal status is immediately undermined by Miranda's challenge, ‘Sweet lord, you play me false’. He sometimes included song lyrics in his characters' dialogue, used music or musical instruments as symbolism, or as a metaphor. Alonzo asks, “What harmony is this? The first reference to trumpets in the play, however, comes from Desdemona. This is a highly significant complication since it establishes as a central issue in the play the responsibility of the poet in constructing his work to some purposeful end. If Prospero's music led the shipwrecked travelers to an awareness of their own history, it also provided a vehicle through which this awareness—this madness—could be healed. … Scaliger … gives a reason for these effects, because the spirits about the heart take in that trembling and dancing air into the body, are moved together, and stirred up with it, or else the mind, as some suppose, harmonically composed, is roused up at the tunes of musick. Where should Othello go?’ (5.2.273-4), and then again some ten lines later: ‘That's he that was Othello; here I am.’. i. that Sebastian strays into the time and place of the other characters. Its social analogues are those forms of musical practice that are sanctioned by Church and State, and serve the interests of hegemonic groups: the music played at weddings, for example, which symbolizes the containment of sexual desire within the hierarchical “concord” of marriage. Olivia is not so abandoned to her sorrow as she thought she was. Meanwhile the real Sebastian is looking for him: It is the only occasion in the Sebastian/Antonio sub-plot on which Shakespeare has attempted to cover his tracks. Conventional justification of masque and of music is therefore questioned. While perhaps bearing no explicit relationship to the progress of the plot or the nature of character, the song “It was a lover and his lass” (V, iii, 5) has an evocative power that imbues the entire conclusion of the play. And the actual playing of music in ill-kept time while Richard thinks of his own wasted time is the last of the series. “Music in Shakespeare: Its Dramatic Use in the Plays,” Encounter, 9 (December, 1957), p. 43. For too long, many fine critics have based their interpretations of Merchant on a fixed Neoplatonic reading of Lorenzo's speech. In Barton, Playing Shakespeare (1984), p. 16. By tracing the development of the praise of music tradition from the ancients through the Renaissance Neoplatonists, Hutton shows that Lorenzo's discourse “… not only contains traditional topics, but that the arrangement is traditional and one part implies the presence of others—in short that we have here to do with a coherent literary theme that Shakespeare has taken bodily into his play.”9 When Lorenzo moves from the music of the spheres to the human condition, he is following a part of the tradition, for there is a correspondence between the realms. An example here is the famous meditative speech in Richard II, spoken by the King as he consoles himself in prison. He also makes it easy for us to fail to see the latter. These papers were written primarily by students and provide critical analysis of various sonnets by William Shakespeare. Toril Moi (New York: Columbia University Press, 1986), 93-98. In turn, use it to make an essay with an introduction, body and conclusion. “Shakespeare and the Music of the Elizabethan Stage: An Introductory Essay.” In Shakespeare in Music, edited by Phyllis Hartnoll, pp. George Parfitt (Harmondsworth, 1975), p. 346. “Freedom, high day!” The song's message of “freedom” becomes comic, of course, given Caliban's expressed intent to “get a new master” (the drunken Stephano). Shall we go see the reliques of this town?’ (III. 6, Subs. But in the contexts in which Shakespeare places them, they sound shocking. He concluded that this boy had no choice but to put all his eggs, so to speak, in an aural basket: “With the art of acting still dominantly the art of speech—to be able to listen an audience's chief need—[the boy] could afford to lose himself unreservedly … in the music of the verse, and let that speak.”6 And the centrality of the actor's voice and musicianly delivery on the Elizabethan stage was even noted while Shakespeare was alive. As a result, definitions of music are always ideological: music appears in myth as an affirmation that society is possible … Its order simulates the social order, and its dissonances express marginalities. This use of music is not there, of course, to support a character in the story, although the actor may react to it; like everything else in the play, in the last analysis it is there to manipulate the audience. Jessica's response to Lorenzo's speech and the music of Portia's musicians in act 5 raises questions crucial to the resolution of the drama. He has been told that music acts on women as an erotic stimulus, and wishes for the most erotic music that money can buy: First a very excellent, good, conceited thing; after, a wonderful sweet air, with admirable rich words to it, and then let her consider. Ross, Shakespeare Quarterly, 17, pp. They are more subtle, made mellifluous by the music of his speech, but they are commands: “Sit, Jessica. It leaves us, as audience, as it does Jessica, prepared to mark the music.”24 Concluding that Lorenzo speaks for the play and for Shakespeare, Danson, it appears, is not prepared to mark what Jessica says. The Vocal Songs in the Plays of Shakespeare (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1967), pp. It sorts oddly with the debate that went before as well as with the hard political discussion of how best to handle it that follows between Ulysses and Nestor. Prospero promises a musical show to reward Ferdinand's chaste resolution—and possibly, as will be seen, to cool the heat of physical desire; similarly, all the retributive and elective music in The Tempest is part of the political deal, when some are granted sleep through ‘solemn music’, and others given warnings; virtually an opiate for the people, the acoustic wealth of the isle is oneirically transmuted into ‘riches ready to drop upon [Caliban]’ (3.2.144-5). What theory of painting, one wonders, would have developed if Pythagoras had owned a spectroscope and learned that color relations can also be expressed in mathematical proportions. Hoeniger, F. D. “Musical Cures of Melancholy and Mania in Shakespeare.” In Mirror up to Shakespeare, edited by J. C. Gray, pp. The unretarded upward movement of the flights of angels bringing Hamlet to his final rest sets him as a character apart from those others who have received unexpected returns from the heavens and brings release from the ironically circular motion of many of the actions and images of the play. For a study of the manifold implications of the banquet see Jacqueline E. M. Latham, ‘The Magic Banquet in The Tempest’, Shakespeare Studies, 12 (1979), pp. She realizes her danger, and her line ‘Kill me tomorrow, let me live tonight’ (5.2.84) is a last attempt to restore sanity to the situation. / I love to sleep ‘gainst prickle, / So doth the nightingale” (1.2.150-53). 1 (Winter, 1986): 253-68. Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1984. It is thus worth pausing here to explore how, over the centuries, the fundamental aurality of the two dramaturgies has been expressed, exploited, and (not infrequently) perverted or travestied. It does so because, though it reflects many of the substantial uncertainties about the masque genre current at the time of its composition, it actively involves the spectator in feeling, not merely contemplating the problems. Indeed, I can only think of one case where it seems certain that a character listens to a song as a song should be listened to, instead of as a stimulus to a petit roman of his own, and that is in Henry VIII, Act III, Scene 1, when Katharine listens to Orpheus with his lute. God's hand tuning the string of the universe is a fairly common Renaissance and Shakespearian emblem. The staging of musical deceit partakes of this strategy, whether the text of a dirge convincingly tells lies, or the right tune of a song allays the drunkards' fury only to deceive them the better. In All's Well That Ends Well, the mysterious fistula from which the King of France is dying is finally cured with a coranto (II. In this respect, Jessica speaks for Shakespeare as much as, if not more than, Lorenzo. This led the Renaissance theorists to strive to achieve the perfect union of the two arts that had supposedly been the attainment of Greece. The Untuning of the Sky: Ideas of Music in English Poetry, 1500-1700 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1961), p. 147. Beatrice and Benedick resist each other because, being both proud and intelligent, they do not wish to be the helpless slaves of emotion or, worse, to become what they have often observed in others, the victims of an imaginary passion. She interrupts herself to give orders to Emilia (“Lay by these” at line 47 and “Prithee hie thee” at line 49) and she even forgets her lines (“Nay, that's not next” at line 51)—Shakespeare's charming touch of human nature. Moreover, audiences were familiar with the differences, as is implied by Beatrice in Much Ado when she offers advice about marriage to her cousin Hero: Hear me, Hero: wooing, wedding, and repenting is as a Scotch jig, a measure, and a cinque-pace: the first suit is hot and hasty like a Scotch jig, and full as fantastical; the wedding mannerly-modest as a measure, full of state and ancientry; and then comes repentance and, with his bad legs, falls into the cinque-pace faster and faster, till he sink into his grave. And beneath these a multitude of other voices from the culture sing out: the Gassons and the Cases, the Mulcasters and the Elyots and the Lodges and the Brights, and the members of the audience who—whatever their private response to the songs they heard from the stage—were all in some way party to the debate.7. The divergent attitudes toward time that As You Like It and The Tempest reveal are perhaps a key to understanding the very different roles that music takes in each of these plays. But Glendower further identifies Lady Mortimer's song with two types of charm that are associated particularly with women: the lullaby and the seduction song. Prospero denies himself the means of access to magical powers, not the validity of their exercise. Are we to be glad that Ferdinand and Miranda are human in a way that Campion's Frederick and Elizabeth are inhibited from being, and do we therefore register this conclusion as a satirical barb aimed at the insulations of the court masque? The music thus symbolizes the perfect macrocosm-microcosm relationship so praised by Renaissance theorists.23. It would be painful enough for her if the man she loved really loved another, but it is much worse to be made to see that he only loves himself, and it is this insight which at this point Viola has to endure. It bars everything new and really interesting in a world, since what does not fit the petit roman is passed over, and what does fit is the dreamer's own. It is only within this dramatic context that we can appreciate the significance of Lorenzo's speech. It also accounts for Hotspur's energetic resistance to it. Yet Ariel is not an alien visitor from the world of opera who has wandered into a spoken drama by mistake. The voice of the other makes itself heard, and it seems, finally, to be registered within Prospero in some way. See especially The Corded Shell: Reflections on Musical Expression (Princeton; Princeton University Press, 1980). But if he has never heard of the theory, there are many things in Shakespeare which the playgoer will miss. 83-140. The tempo increased dramatically, and the pitch of the music was dropped slightly to get this feeling. The impatience we feel, however, when it is Gower and not Pericles who returns, seems to have been anticipated by the old poet, who tells us to “Be quiet then, as men should be” (II.Cho.5), just as Helicanus had earlier counseled patience in adversity to Pericles. Cholij, Irena. The metaphor itself is conventional in Western literary criticism, familiar from recurring allusions to the “music of poetry.” Kristeva's use of it is also conventional insofar as it articulates what has always been implicit in those allusions, namely the Western tendency to position music among signifying systems not only by analogy with, but also in opposition to language: melos vs. logos; sound vs. sense; “music” vs. “meaning.” Thus such apparently innocent, usually celebratory metaphors of “musical” language reveal how music, whether as discourse or in discourse, becomes implicated in the binarisms that organize patriarchal thinking, and thereby associated with the unconscious and the irrational as well as with the feminine. But Jessica's happiness is a different matter: its uncertainty is a central part of the play. Since Morgann the very words have been a stick to beat the plays with: ‘that Drum and trumpet Thing’ as he called 1 Henry VI.4 The noise will help entertain those poor devils, the groundlings, who attend the theatre, at no slight cost to their slender purses, to snatch a quarter of an hour or so of entertainment by way of noise, smut, and vulgarity from the two hours' traffic passing before them. Such song, as Mark Booth has pointed out, invites us as audience to submerge ourselves in an indentification with the singing voice, hence the appeal of the simple, quasi-pastoral lyric that Ariel sings. C. L. Barber, Shakespeare's Festive Comedy (Princeton: Princeton UP, 1959) 187. Asked to describe the “disposition” of the Duke, Escalus says that he is “One that, above all other strifes, contended especially to know himself. But the passage immediately following in Ælian is occulted in most texts of praise, as it describes the erogenous power of music—a moot point which encomiasts would rather not tackle. Catherine Porter (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1985), pp. … Who among [current actors] studies the principles that regulate the music of passion, as singers do the principles of their art?”15 More recently, Granville-Barker began his famous series of prefaces on the production of Shakespeare's plays with this simple admonition: “The text of a play is a score waiting performance.”16. Discuss Shakespeare's greatness as a playwright. As John Long has pointed out, songs are usually given to secondary characters, many of them representatives of the lower classes: rustics, tradesmen, servants, fools.6 By contrast, men who occupy positions of power, or who have the role of sympathetic hero, almost never sing or even have songs sung for them, unless, like Orsino, they are temporarily self-displaced, having abandoned themselves to some passion, or, like Edgar, they are deliberately feigning such abandonment. This statement equates the state with an instrument which Antonio makes play at will, a common sixteenth-century image. Florish, a peece goes off” (Q2). Not only are the characters on stage pushed hither and thither by Prospero's music, but it works its end upon our senses also, with an undeniable insinuation. Posthumus is overcome with guilt; his conscience is “fettered” and he beseeches the gods to give him “the penitent instrument to pick that bolt” (8-10). It is not an indication of music introduced automatically and casually. Troilus and Cressida uses music as a structural element rather differently. New York: Oxford University Press, 1990. Finally, however, at Belmont, music—and musical speech—lose their formerly seductive power. The Christians manifest, as Bassanio reveals (2.2.188-91), the human tendency to “purpose” a kind of merriment, aided by music and musical speech, that turns out—in its stubborn clinging to earthly judgements of divine things and pseudodivine judgements of earthly things—to be false. Neoplatonic theory promises momentary ecstasy, but, in the end, Jessica offers, in the manner of her father, rough idiom to Lorenzo's mellifluous “vows of faith.” At first, Jessica engages in the echoic exchange of “In such a night,” showing that it cannot contain and beautify ugly truths. Houston A. Baker Jr., Modernism and the Harlem Renaissance (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1987), 45. The play demands that we distinguish musical sweet-talkers who “purpose” but displace merriment from plain-talkers who are attentive to the preconditions of true merriment. As so often in Shakespeare, the death (symbolic or real) of a parent permits the transfer and transformation of a character's affection to a lover, involving, not least of course, the awakening of sexual desire. In the compendia of Renaissance thought, music played a vital role. This is his last act of official business in the play, and it now becomes apparent that this six-line scene has marked the climax of Othello's career and that its position as the central scene of the play is a fitting one. During this period, Cholij points out, musical elements in the play were expanded by interpolating new songs, dances, and masques, and by rendering speech as recitative. The victory of Justice which he brings about seems rather a duty than a source of joy to himself. … Look you how his sword is bloodied’ (I.ii.193-5, 220-1).12 The frivolity as well as the seriousness of love must contend as best it may in this sterner world of bloody warfare. John Stevens's book, Music and Poetry in the Early Tudor Court (London and New York: Methuen, 1961, 1978) is generally regarded as the standard work on the topic for this period; his “Shakespeare and the Music of the Elizabethan Stage” (in Shakespeare in Music, ed. On Ophelia's mad speech, see Sandra K. Fischer, “Hearing Ophelia: Gender and Tragic Discourse in Hamlet,” Renaissance and Reformation/Renaissance et Reforme 26 (1990), 1-11, and David Leverenz, “The Woman in Hamlet: An Interpersonal View,” in Murray M. Schwartz and Coppelia Kahn, eds., Representing Shakespeare: New Psychoanalytic Essays (Baltimore and London: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1980), pp. The first is a matter of placement and causality: if the music of the spheres expresses universal harmony, why does Pericles hear it after the lesser miracle but before the greater; that is, before the theophany and before his wife is restored to him? But this ethereal music, invented by man in imitation of divine harmony, can also be used by man as he sometimes uses language and costume (and as Antiochus does here), to whiten the sepulchre—to lie. Any poet of the period who used a musical imagery would have attached the same associations to it, for they were part of the current Renaissance theory of the nature of music and its effects. What mattered to him above all was the power of the individual word to shape a situation, to act as a rocket firing the music across the footlights. Though their intellectual context was that of Christian humanism rather than poststructuralist theory, early modern English writers also associated music with the body and its libidinal energies. It is for precisely this reason that Cordelia makes a dramatic point of acting before she speaks in King Lear. We are but a step away from the dance as yet another art form making its contribution to Elizabethan drama. What distinguishes them is the presence of something “extra”—music—which at once imitates and estranges spoken utterance, shaping it to a different set of rules. Irene Dash, Wooing, Wedding and Power (New York: Columbia UP, 1981), mentions neither Jessica nor Merchant; in The Woman's Part: Feminist Criticism of Shakespeare, eds. Charles Frey, “The Sweetest Rose: As You Like It as Comedy of Reconciliation,” in Experiencing Shakespeare: Essays on Text, Classroom and Performance (Columbia: University of Missouri Press, 1988), 20. So Theseus' horns are slightly sarcastic horns, akin to the alarums heard at the beginning of Troilus and Cressida when they blow raspberries at the lovesick Troilus: This protest by Troilus is answered by another blast on the trumpets. In the Shakespearian canon, a significant change may also be traced in the clearly discernible shift from verbal allusion and complex musical polysemy to a more and more abundant inscription of actual music and songs in the plays; this possibly reflects the growing expectations of the audiences in terms of stage-music, making the latter an economic as well as an artistic stake in the commercial rivalry between the theatres and the dramatists. [In the following essay, Schmidgall compares Shakespearean play texts to musical scores. Washington, D.C.: University Press of America, 1982. There are numerous studies of this kind, ranging from Richmond Noble's discussion of the use of song for revealing character or furthering the plot2 to Caroline Spurgeon's comments on the musical imagery.3 Some, like Edward J. Dent,4 describe the instruments Shakespeare must have required for certain scenes or effects, while John H. Long attempts to trace the actual music used or to suggest substitutes suitable for contemporary performance.5 But until quite recently there has been insufficient attention given to Shakespeare's relation to the complex musical ideology of his time.6 Because the Romances incorporate so much of this philosophy, a survey of some of the basic concepts is a necessary preface to any consideration of the plays themselves. In discussions following the paper at the Congress two comments were made on this scene. In Pericles, apparently the first of the romances to be written, the references are chiefly to musica humana, although one celebrated instance of musica mundana does occur. It is an element, however, whose particular contribution is more likely to be overlooked than most outside the theatre. [In the following essay, Dunn argues that Lady Mortimer's song in Act III, scene i of Henry IV, Part 1 represents a singular moment of a woman's domestic, erotic voice in a play dominated by male power struggle.]. Some universal themes he analyzes within his text include, but are not limited to: appearance vs reality, order vs disorder, greed, lust, free will, and love. For my analysis I have used Ian Spink's edition of the song (reprinted in Orgel's Oxford edition), which appears in Johnson's Ayres, Songs and Dialogues, vol. 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